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Sextus Empiricus

Background

Sextus Empiricus was an ancient Greek philosopher and physician who lived around the 2nd or 3rd century CE. He is best known for his work in skepticism, particularly Pyrrhonism, a school of thought that advocates for suspension of judgment (epoché) and promotes a life without dogmatic beliefs. Sextus Empiricus' writings are among the most comprehensive sources on ancient skepticism and have had a significant influence on later philosophical thought.

Key Aspects of Sextus Empiricus' Life and Work

1. Life and Background:

   • Little is known about Sextus Empiricus' life, including his exact dates of birth and death. He likely lived during the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries CE.
   • He was a practicing physician, which influenced his philosophical views, particularly his emphasis on empirical observation and skepticism about theoretical knowledge.

2. Philosophical Contributions:

   • Pyrrhonism: Sextus Empiricus is the most significant proponent of Pyrrhonian skepticism. Pyrrhonism, named after Pyrrho of Elis, advocates for suspending judgment on all beliefs to achieve mental tranquility (ataraxia).
   • Suspension of Judgment: Central to Sextus' philosophy is the concept of epoché, the suspension of judgment. He argued that for every argument, there is an equally convincing counterargument, making it impossible to achieve certainty.
   • Practical Skepticism: Sextus emphasized practical skepticism, focusing on how to live a life without dogmatic beliefs. He believed that suspending judgment could lead to a more peaceful and contented life, free from the anxiety of trying to ascertain absolute truths.

3. Major Works:

   • Sextus Empiricus' main works are "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" (Pyrrhōneioi Hypotypōseis) and "Against the Professors" (Adversus Mathematicos), also known as "Against the Dogmatists."
   • Outlines of Pyrrhonism: This work is a systematic exposition of Pyrrhonian skepticism, presenting the arguments for suspending judgment and the methods skeptics use to counter dogmatic assertions.
   • Against the Professors: In this extensive work, Sextus critiques various branches of knowledge, including grammar, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astrology, music, logic, physics, and ethics. He argues against the claims of these disciplines to possess certain knowledge.

4. Methodology:

   • Modes of Skepticism: Sextus elaborated on various modes (tropoi) of skepticism, which are strategies to induce suspension of judgment. These include the ten modes of Aenesidemus and the five modes of Agrippa, which highlight the relativity of perception, the infinite regress of justifications, and the problem of criteria for truth.
   • Empirical Approach: As a physician, Sextus valued empirical observation and practical experience over theoretical knowledge. He believed that sensory experience is subjective and varied, which further supports the skeptical stance.

5. Influence and Legacy:

   • Sextus Empiricus' works were rediscovered during the Renaissance and significantly influenced the development of modern philosophy, particularly the work of Michel de Montaigne, René Descartes, David Hume, and later skeptics.
   • His arguments against dogmatism and the emphasis on empirical observation contributed to the development of scientific skepticism and the empirical method in modern science.

Major Themes in Sextus Empiricus' Philosophy

• Epistemological Skepticism: A core theme is the doubt about the possibility of certain knowledge. Sextus argues that for any proposition, there is a counter-proposition of equal weight.
• Ethical Implications: He suggests that suspending judgment leads to ataraxia, a state of tranquility and freedom from disturbance, as it prevents the frustration that arises from trying to ascertain the truth.
• Critique of Dogmatism: Sextus critiques various forms of dogmatism, whether philosophical, scientific, or religious, showing that dogmatic assertions often lack sufficient justification.

Summary

Sextus Empiricus was a pivotal figure in ancient skepticism, particularly in the tradition of Pyrrhonism. His works provide a detailed account of skeptical philosophy, advocating for the suspension of judgment and the avoidance of dogmatic beliefs. Through his rigorous critique of various disciplines and his emphasis on empirical observation, Sextus Empiricus has left a lasting legacy in the history of philosophy, influencing both ancient and modern thought on skepticism and epistemology.

The legacy of Pyrrhonism is described in Richard Popkin's The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Descartes and High Road to Pyrrhonism. The transmission of Sextus's manuscripts through antiquity and the Middle Ages is reconstructed by Luciano Floridi's Sextus Empiricus, The Recovery and Transmission of Pyrrhonism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

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